Unit I

UNIT – I

 INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

               Psychologists are agreed that they do not know what intelligence is. They can only observe how it works in terms of behaviour. The assumption is that behaviour reflects intelligence. The present basis of study has yielded such important and usable information about man’s behaviour as to be extremely helpful to teachers. If a Hindi teacher teaches in a class a student responds correctly and quickly for teacher’s questions. The teacher usually says that the boy is very intelligent. The teacher does not say that he is good in Hindi. Thus intelligence is nothing but intelligent behaviour.‘An intelligent behaviour is that which is above the norms of a particular group.”

DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE

          Intelligence means to apply one’s knowledge to noble situation or adjustment to noble situations- Alfred Binet.

          Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment. – Weschler.

“Intelligence is the ability to undertake activities that are characterized by difficulty, complexity, and abstractness, economy, social value adaptiveness to a goal emergence of originals to maintain such activities under condition that demand a concentration of energy and resistance to emotional force” – G.D. Stodard.

Intelligence is the ability to adjust to novel situation.

Intelligence is the innate ability.

Intelligence is related more to abstract thinking.

Intelligence is an ability related to cognition.

NATURE

Inherited intelligence: Intelligence cannot be increased or decreased. The amount of intelligence that a person possesses is inherited and fixed. With the growth of child, the amount inherited by a child grows and it reaches its maximum limit at the age of sixteen or seventeen.

Intelligence and environmental factors: Very pleasant environment (love, concern, affection on children) develops the intelligence. Poor environment retards the development of intelligence.

Intelligence, adjustments and inventions: An intelligent person has the ability to adjust himself to the changing situations with ease, efficiency and speed. All the inventions of the world can be attributed to persons of very high intelligence.

Distribution of intelligence: The majority of the school children say about 60’s  are found in the range 90-110 and are referred to as Normal.

Intelligence and sex difference: Generally speaking, the research studies show that the average scores of the sexes are striking similar.

Intelligence and race difference: Every racial and cultural group contains some gifted children.

Gaussian Distribution of Intelligence

Most people, that is about two thirds (68%) of an age-group, will reach a score and thereby an intelligence quotient of 85 – 115 in an intelligence test.

About 95 % have an IQ between 70 and 130.

Extremely low or high scores are rare:

About 2 % of an age-group have an extremely low IQ (under 70),

About 2 % of an age-group have an extremely high IQ (above 130).

Intellectual giftedness (frequently not distinguished from giftedness) is considered given, when an IQ is higher than 130.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

SINGLE FACTOR THEORY

This theory holds that intelligence consists of one factor- a fund of intellectual competency-

which is universal for all the activities of an individual.

According to this theory, if one has the fund of intelligence, he can utilize it in any area of his

life and can be as successful in one area as in other depending upon his fund. However in real

life situations, the ideas propagated by this theory do not fit well. We find that the children who

are bright in Mathematics may not so good in Civics. A student very good in conducting science

experiments does not find himself equally competent in learning languages. This makes us

conclude that there is nothing like one single factor in intelligence. Therefore single factor or

unitary theory stands rejected.

SPEARMAN’S TWO – FACTOR THEORY OR ECLECTIC THEORY.

In 1904, spearman, an English psychologistproduced strong evidence based on his own researches that there was one fundamental ability underlying all cognitive functions. According to him, every task involving intellectual activity depended upon a general ability or “g’’ factor and a separate ability or ‘specific” factor. This view is popularly known as two-factor theory of intelligence.

           It is a universal inborn ability. It is general mental energy. It is constant. It remains the same for any individual in respect of the correlated abilities. The amount of ‘G’ differs from individual to individual. It is used in every life activity. Greater the ‘g’ factor in an individual greater the success in life.

            Thus when we respond to any situation or perform an intellectual task, our general mental ability or ‘g’ factor is responsible for part of our reactions and our specific ability in that particular task is responsible for the rest.

‘S’ FACTOR

As a general factor is insufficient to account for the whole performance, supplementing, specific abilities are found. It is learned and acquired in the environment. It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.

              There is a large number of specific abilities, such as, ability to draw inferences, ability to complete sentences, ability to continue series of numbers, the ability to code messages etc,.

ANARCHIC THEORY OR MULTIFACTOR THEORY

The main propagator of this theory was E. L. Thorndike. As the name suggests, this theory considers intelligence a combination of numerous separate elements or factors, each one being a minute element of one’s ability. So there is no such thing as general intelligence and there are only many highly independent specific abilities which go into different tasks.

From the point of view of the tasks performed by people intelligence can be understood as i) concrete intelligence – ability to deal with concrete aspects.ii) abstract Intelligence-ability to deal with abstract phenomena and Social Intelligence- ability to deal with people and relations.

He distinguishes four attributes of intelligence

Level :Level refers to task difficulty

Range:Range or width refers to a number of tasks , at any degree of difficulty that we can solve.

Area: Area in a test means the total number of situations at each level.

Speed:Speed is the rapidity with which we can respond to test items.

Every intelligence test consists of four attributes. when we test a person, we give him a certain number of tasks (area) and these tasks vary in difficulty (level) and there are certain number of items at each level of difficulty (range). They are responded in a given time (speed).

GUILFORD’S THEORY OF STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (SOI) OR SI THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

            J.P Guilford (1897-1988) a renowned psychologist of the USA, is best remembered for his research on intelligence. He developed SI theory of Intelligence at the psychological laboratory of the Southern California University in 1966 after an intensive study for 10 years. This theory was in terms of 150 components – five forms of operations, five forms of content and six forms of products.            He suggests that the mind is composed of at least three dimensions - operations, content and products. Every intellectual abilityin the structure is characterized in terms of type of content, operation and the resulting product.

OPERATIONS

            Operations refer to what the respondent does. Mental operations are classified into five major groups of intellectual abilities.

Cognition: It refers to discovery, rediscovery or recognition.

Memory: It is a primary mental process. It means the retention of what is recognized.

Divergent thinking: This implies thinking in different directions, seeking and searching some variety and novelty.

Convergent thinking: The operations of organizing, by reasoning or other processes, the contents in such a way as to result in useful solutions to problems.

Evaluation: It is about reaching decisions or making judgements about the information received.

CONTENTS

            Content refers to the nature of the materials or information on which operations are made. There are four types of contents. 1. Figural 2. Symbolic 3.Semantic content 4.Behavioural content.

Figural (Visual):The properties of stimuli we can experience through visual senses e.g. colour, size, shape, texture and other visual characters of figure.

Figural (Auditory) : The properties of stimuli we can experience through the auditory senses. e.g. Voice and Sound.

Symbolic: It is composed of letters, digits and other conventional signs.

Semantic content: It is in the form of verbal meanings or ideas which we get from others.

Behavioural content: It means social behavior in society.

PRODUCTS

            Product refers to the form in which the information is processed by the respondent. There are six types of products.

Units: Understanding the meaning of words, visuals, auditory and symbolic units.

Classes: It means classification of words and ideas.

Relations: It implies discovering relations between various concepts and objects.

Systems: The ability to structure objects in space, to structure symbolic elements and to formulate problems.

Transformations: The ability to look into the future lines of development or to suggest changes in the existing situations.

Implications: The ability to utilize present information for future ends.

Guilford suggests that the five processes act on the fivecontent to produce one of six cognitive products. Guilford believes that each person is a unique composite of a great many different intellectual abilities. Each intellectual functioning involves three components: a cognitive operation, specific content and a specific product.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE SI MODEL

1.      The SI model has explored 150 intellectual abilities and this enables us to find out if we are paying adequate attention to each of these. If not, it explains how to improve.

2.      The model provides knowledge about the specific ability of students to guide them in the right direction. An analysis of the abilities of the students by the guidance worker would enable him to suggest a reliable base on which future learning could be based.

3.      The model points out that for understanding human learning and higher mental processes of thinking, problem-solving and creativity. Significant modifications would be needed in the theory of curriculum constructions and methodology of instruction.

4.      The model guides us to provide enrichment programmes for creative and talented students.

5.      The model is useful in finding out the reasons of unsatisfactory performance of a student in spite of his high level of intelligence.

6.      The model discards the idea of transfer of learning and stresses that learning of specific skills should be the focus of our attention.

If we look at the abilities which Guilford classifies as content, we see that he describes four kinds of intelligence.

The use of figural information (Visual & Audio) – an ability of mechanics, artists and musicians may be regarded s concrete intelligence.

Symbolic intelligence involves the use of words and numbers. It may be regarded as abstract intelligence.

Semantic intelligence helps us to acquire ideas and facts.

Social intelligence which is largely non-verbal in character, governs our behavior.

GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

            Howard Gardner of Harvard University has propounded a unique theory of intelligence called the “theory of multiple intelligence”. He said that there are seven independent types of intelligence that grow and develop differently in different people, depending upon their hereditary characteristics or environmental experiences. By calling them independent, Gardner meant that each intelligence is a relatively autonomous intellectual potential which is capable of functioning independently of the others.

Linguistic intelligence.           This type of human intelligence is responsible for all kinds or linguistic competence-abilities, talents and skills, available in human beings. It can be best broken down into components like syntax, semantics and pragmatics as well as more school-oriented skills such as written or oral expression and understanding. This type of intelligence is most visible in professionals like lawyers, lecturers, writers and lyricists, and a number of other professionals exploiting linguistic intelligence.

Logical-Mathematical intelligence.  This type of intelligence is responsible for all types of abilities, talents and skills in areas related to logic and mathematics. It can be broken down into components like deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, scientific thinking including solving of logical puzzles, carrying out calculations and the like. Professionals like mathematicians, philosophers, physicists, etc. are found to exhibit this type of intelligence in abundance.

Spatial intelligence.    This type of intelligence is concerned with the abilities, talents and skills involving the representation and manipulation of spatial configuration and relationship. Many of us as adults make use of this kind of intelligence in the sphere of our work. For example, painters may be seen to demonstrate spatial intelligence through their use of space when applying pigments to a canvas. This is also true of professionals like land surveyors, architects, engineers, mechanics, navigators, sculptures and chess players – who are found to rely upon the spatial intelligence in their own way.

Musical intelligence.  This type of intelligence covers the abilities, talents and skills pertaining to the field of music. It may be well demonstrated through one’s capacity for pitch discrimination, sensitivity to rhythm, texture and timbre, ability to hear themes in music; and in its most integrated forms, the production of music through performance or composition. It is visible in a quite large proportion in professionals like musicians and composers.

Bodily kinesthetic intelligence.This type of intelligence is concerned with the set of abilities, talents and skills involved in using one’s body or its various parts to perform skillful and purposeful movements. A child may be seen to demonstrate such intelligence in moving expressively in response to different musical and verbal stimuli or bending different body parts in organized sports. Among professionals, dancers, athletes and surgeons may be seen to demonstrate a high degree of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in their respective fields.

Intra-personal intelligence.   This type of intelligence consists of an individual’s abilities to enable him to know his self. It includes knowledge and understanding of one’s own cognitive strengths, styles and mental functioning, as well as one’s feelings, range of emotions and skills to utilize one’s fund of knowledge in practical situations.

Inter-personal intelligence.   The counterpart of intrapersonal intelligence in one’s cognitive structure is interpersonal intelligence. It consists of the abilities to understand individuals other than one’s self and one’s relations to others. In addition, it includes the ability to act productively, based on the understanding of others. The knowledge and understanding of others is the quality that is needed for social interaction in one’s day-to-day life. In practical life, this type of intelligence is most visible among psychotherapists, teachers, sales people , politicians and religious leaders.

Naturalistic Intelligence

The ability to recognize flora and fauna,to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively in farming, in biological science and hunting. Farmers, botanists, biologists and environmentalists would display this.

Educational Implications

1.      Educational guidance may be given based on the dominant type of intelligence in the adolescents.

2.      Different categories of students are grouped and special training can be given for the students in developing their skills.

3.      Helps the adolescents to select a particular vocation.

4.      If the adolescents are weak in a particular intelligence, then special coaching can be given for them so that they develop that particular intelligence also.

5.      It helps the adolescents to know their strength and weakness.

MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

              Intelligence tests are used to measure intelligence. It is important to note that intelligence is inferred from a variety of elements in behaviour and speed of doing things correctly etc for which intelligence tests have been decried. Intelligence test is a objective and a standardized measure.

              Intelligence is measured through a complicated process. It involves a comparison and establishment of a relationship between C.A and M.A. This relationship is expressed by the term IQ. When the mental age is divided by the chronological age and the quotient multiplied by 100, the result is I.Q.

                                        M.A

                          I.Q    =   ------   x 100

                                        C.A

            When we want to calculate the mental age of a student, all questions assigned to the age are put to him. If he answers all the questions assigned to that age correctly, his mental age is equal to his chronological age and that child is considered to be an average one.

 Suppose you have to test a child of C.A. 8 on the BinetScale. You have to start with questions assigned to the sixth year and then go up. The child may be successful in, answering correctly all the questions assigned to years 6, 7, and 8 and may stop at 9. His mental age will be 8.

TYPE OF TESTS

Various types of test have been constructed so far for measuring the intelligence but the credit goes to the Binet and Stanford, who have first developed the test to measure intelligence. Binet is considered as the father of intelligence.

The available tests are classified in number of ways.

Classification from the point of view of Administration

a) Individual testsb) Group tests.

Classification from the point of view of Nature of test

a)Verbal  b)  Non – Verbal C) Performance intelligence test.

INDIVIDUAL TESTS

            These tests are administered to one individual at a time. These cover age group from 2 years to 18 years. These are a)Binet-Simon test b) Revised test by Termanc) Mental scholastic test d) Wechsler test.

GROUP TESTS

Group tests are administered to a group of people. Group tests had their birth in America when the intelligence of the recruits who joined the army in the First World War was to be calculated. These are a) the army Alpha and Beta test b) Terman’s Group test.

S..No	INDIVIDUAL TEST	GROUP TEST
01	It is administered to an individual	It is administered to a group at the same time.
02	It is costly in terms of administration and time	It is less costly in terms of administration and time
03	A trained tester is required to administer it	No trained  person is required to administer it
04	There is face to face interaction between the individual and the tester	There is no such face to face interaction
05	Individual test is more reliable Guidance can be provided to the individual on the basis of its results	Group test may be influenced by several factors.
06	It is useful for small children	It is suitable for older and adults children.
07	The tester can motivate the individual by means of praise and encouragement as he can adapt to the needs of the individual child.	It is not possible to do so.
08	There is very little scope for cheating	Cheating on a large scale is possible.
09	There is no competition in individual testing.	Speed and reading ability may influence the test score.
10	No special formalities are Observed in individual testing.	Several formalities are observed in administering

CLASSIFICATION FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF NATURE OF TEST

Verbal intelligence test

Non - Verbal intelligence test

Performance intelligence test

VERBAL INTELLIGENCE TEST

        In these tests the subjects made use of   language in which the instructions are given in words, written, oral or both. The individuals being tested are required to use language, verbal or written, for their responses, the test content is loaded with verbal material which may include varieties of the items listed below.

Vocabulary tests

     In these the subject is required to give the meanings of words or phrases. For example, what is the meaning of the word ‘psychology’? What is the difference between bear and wear?

Memory tests

            These are designed to the subjects’ immediate and long-term memory and                     include recall and recognition type of items. He may be called upon to tell the full names of teachers who teach him different subjects, his phone number, the number of his vehicle.

Comprehension tests

By means of these, the subject is tested for the ability to group, understand and react to a given situation. Why are the nights longer and the days shorter in winter?

Information tests

The subject is tested on his knowledge about the things around him by means of these tests. Eg. Where is the Tajmahal situated?

Reasoning tests

            In this test the subject is asked to provide answers which demonstrate his ability to reason, logically, analytically, synthetically, inductively and deductively.  1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, 22….

Association tests

Through this test items, the subject is tested for his ability to point out the similarities or dissimilarities between two or more concepts or objects. For E.g. In what ways are animals and plants alike? Which of the items mentioned below is the odd one?A)Gold, b)Silver, c)Copper, d)Iron, E)Glass.

b) NON-VERBAL TESTS 

            In this type of test, the student is required neither to use nor understand language nor to manipulate three dimensional objects. Rather test items consist of symbolic responses (multiple choices) to relationships among figures and designs. Such tests have a very important place. They avoid complete dependence on verbal ability and they apparently measure more important intellectual functions than do performance tests. Examples are

Digit symbol test

Nine rectangle with a digit in the upper half and a symbol in the lower half is the key. It is followed by seventy five rectangles (10 for practice) in which only the numerals are given. Appropriate symbols are to be inserted in lower half. Speed and accuracy of performance are measured.  

Picture completion test

    15 cards contain drawings with an important part missing. The subject has to name the missing part. Basic perceptual and conceptual abilities are measured.     

Picture arrangement

It contains of 8 sets of pictures. Each series is presented to the subject in a disarranged manner. When the picture of a set are placed in the correct sequence they tell a story. This test measures a person’s ability to comprehend and evaluate the total situation without the use of language.

Object assembly

 It includes 4 figures from boards that represent familiar objects, each cut into several parts which the subjects assemble into the whole. Perceptual of parts and their reconstruction into a meaningful whole are required.

  c) PERFORMANCE TESTS

This test is used for those who are very poor in their verbal ability or have no mastery over any language. They are useful for deaf, dumb or blind children. The subject has to perform some at or do some practical work.

Block building or cube construction

 The subject is asked to make a structure or design by means of blocks or cubes supplied to him.

To fit blocks in holes

Test material of this type provides numerous blocks and a board on which there are holes which correspond to these blocks. The subject has to fit the blocks in their corresponding holes on the board.

Tracing a maze

The test material consists of a series of mazes of increasing difficulty, each printed on a separate sheet. The subject is required to trace with a pencil, the path from entrance to exit.

Man drawing test

The subject is required to draw as best as possible a man on the paper. The scoring is done in terms of the important parts shown in the drawing.

Koh’s Block Design test.

            It consists of 16 coloured inch – cubes and 10 designs printed in the same colours on cardboard. The subject is required to arrange the cubes to match the design.

Sl.No.	Verbal Test	Non- Verbal Test	Perform Test
01	Content and product	product	Process and product block operation
02	Understanding of written language	Symbolic response	Manipulative response
03	Verbal comprehension factor	Symbolic, relation, reasoning factor	Perceptual and spatial factor
04	Write language	By marking correct choice	By handling the objects correctly
05	Effect of culture and language	There is no effect of culture and language	There is no effect of culture and language
06	Used for individual and group testing	May be used for individual and group	Only for individual testing
07	Can be used on literates	Literal and literal both understanding of languages	can be used for both literate  illiterate children and adult
08	Easy to construct, administer and scoring	Difficult to construct easy to administer and scoring	Difficult to construct Administer and scoring.
09	a) Verbal comparative b) Numerical computation	a) Learning for abstract b) Seeing the relationship perception	a) Perceptual ability b) Spatial ability

CREATIVITY

The terms ‘creativity’ or ‘creative process’ has been defined in many ways. Some of these definitions are as follows:

Stagner and Karwoski (1973):         Creativity implies the production of a ‘totally or partially’ novel identity.

M. J. Levin (1978) :   Creativity is the ability to discover new solutions to problems or to produce new ideas, inventions or works of art. It is a special form of thinking, a way of viewing the world and interacting with it in a manner different from that of the general population.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVITY

Creativity is universal

Creativity is innate as well as acquired

Creativity produces something new or novel

Creativity is a means as well as end in itself

Creativity carries ego involvement

Creativity has a wide scope

Creativity and intelligence do not necessarily go hand-in-hand

Creativity rests more on divergent thinking than on convergent thinking

Creativity cannot be separated from intelligence

Creativity and school achievement are not correlated

Sociability and creativity are negatively correlated

Creativity and anxiety often go together

CREATIVE PROCESS

Wallace identifies the following steps in creative thinking

1.      Preparation: It includes the sensing of a need or problem, the examination of various

aspects of the total situation objectively and finally the definition of the problem within workable limits. One can’t afford to remain casual or indifferent to a problem. Prepared mind can discover. A person with a problem gathers data as the ground for solution.

2.      Incubation: A creative thinker considers on an idea to find a solution to the problem that is bothering him. When he does not get it, he suspends doing anything and hits upon a way out.

3.      Illumination: This is ‘Aah Experience’. This is getting insight. This transforms the individual from a state of examining miserably and helplessly to a state of mastery and happiness

4.      Evaluation:The individual evaluates his hypothesis, submits himself to critical appraisal and even abandons his hypothesis if sufficient proof was not available. Impersonal objectivity characterizes the end product of creativity. 

IDENTIFICATION OF CREATIVITY

We can label a child as creative by two different approaches

i)                                Test of creativity

ii)                              Non-testing devices

Test of creativity

i)                                Minnesota tests of creative thinking

ii)                              Guilford’s Divergent Thinking instrument

iii)                            A.C test of creative ability

iv)                            Torrance tests of creativity

v)                              Baquer Mehdi’s test of creative thinking

vi)                            Saxena’s Test of creativity

Non-testing Device

The creative aspect of the child can also be assessed through some non-testing deviceslike

natural observation method, situational techniques, rating scale, check list, interview, personality

inventories, interest inventories, attitude scale, aptitude, value schedule and so on. Thesedevices

help in the revelation of those personality traits and behavioural characteristics that are supposed

tobe present in a creative child.

DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVITY

Creativity can be developed throughthe following practices.

Freedom to respond. We should allow adequate freedom to our children in responding to a

situation. They should be encouraged to think out as many ideas as they can for the solution of a

problem.

Opportunity for ego involvement. Feeling like ‘this is my creation’, ‘I have solved it’, give much

satisfaction to children. Actually, a child can be expected to put in determined efforts into creative

activities only when his ego is involved.

Encouraging originality and flexibility. Originality on the part of children in any form should be

encouraged. If children seek to change their methods of learning a task or solving a problem, they

should be encouraged to do so.

Removal of hesitation and fear. In countries like India, there seems to be a great hesitation mixed

with a sense of inferiority and fear in taking the initiative for creative expression. The causes of such

difference and fear should be discovered and removed as far as possible. The teachers and parents

should encourage and motivate such children to express themselves by saying or writing something,

anything, no matter how rough it may be.

Providing appropriate opportunities and atmosphere for creative expression. A healthy

atmospherefavourable for creative thinking and expression is essential for the stimulation and

nourishment of creativity among children. Co-curricular activities in school can be used for

providing opportunities for creative expression. Religious festivals, and social get-togethers,

exhibitions etc., can also provide the opportunity for creative expression.

Developing healthy habits among children. Industriousness persistence, self-reliance and self-

confidence are some of the qualities that are helpful in creative output. Children should, therefore, be

helped to imbibe these qualities.

Using the creative resources of the community. Children should be made to visit the centre of art,

scientific, and industrial creative work. This may stimulate and inspire them for creative work.

Avoidance of blocks to creative thinking. Factors like conservation, faulty methods of teaching,

unsympathetic treatment, fixed and rigid habits of work, over-emphasis on school marks,

authoritarian attitude of teachers and parents etc., are known to be harmful to the growth of

creativity among children. As far as possible, parents and teachers should, therefore, try to avoid

such factors in upbringing and educating the children.

Proper organization of the curriculum. Learning experiences in the form of curricula should be so

designed as to foster creativity among children. For this purpose, the school curriculum should be

organized primarily on the basis of concepts rather than facts.

Reform in the evaluation system. The emphasis on memorization by rote, fixed and rigid single

responses, and convergent thinking etc. which kills creativity of the children should be abandoned

and a proper evaluation system adopted for encouraging complete and balanced experiences in

developing their creative behavior.

Use of special techniques for fostering creativity

Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a strategy or technique for allowing a group to explore ideas

without judgment or censure. In practice, the children may be asked to sit in a group for solving a

problem and attacking it without any inhibition from many angles: in fact, literally storming it with a

number of possible ideas and solutions. To start with, the students may be provided with a focus e.g.,

particular problem like ‘student unrest’, or the growing unemployment in India, or how to check

truancy in our school, etc. The students are then asked to suggest ideas as rapidly as possible.

Use of teaching models. Some of the teaching models developed by educationists may prove quite

beneficial in developing creativity among children.

Use of gaming technique. Gaming techniques, in a playful spirit, help the children in the

development of creative traits.

Teaching by example. The teacher and parents, who themselves follow the beaten track and do not

show any originality for fear of being wrong or never experience the excitement of creating or doing

something new, fail to stimulate creativity among the childrenin their charge. The teachers and

parents must, therefore, themselves develop the habit of creative thinking.

TORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING

Creativity tests developed by E. Paul Torrance, the eminent American psychologist, cover both

verbal and non-verbal activities performed by the subjects and are claimed to be successfully used

from kindergarten to graduate school.     

The activities required in the non-verbal sub-tests are of the following nature:

Figure or picture completion test In this sub-test there are some incomplete figures. The subject is

asked to complete these figures by adding new dimensions or lines for providing new ideas. He is

also asked to give suitable titles for the completed figures or pictures.

Picture or figural construction test In this sub-test, the subject is provided with a piece of coloured

paper cut in a curved shape and asked to think of a figure or picture of which this piece of paper may

be a part. He is allowed to add new ideas to make this figure as interesting and meaningful as

possible. He is also asked to provide a suitable title for this figure or picture.

Parallel lines test In this sub-test there are several pairs of straight lines. The subject is required to

draw as many objects or pictures by using each pair. He is also asked to provide a title for each of his

drawings.

The verbal forms (employed as a verbal testing device) incorporate tasks which require the use of

language. The subject is required to provide written responses to the questions put to him. The verbal

activities asked to be performed are of the following nature:

Asking type In asking type of activities, the subject is encouraged to reveal his ability to perceive all

things which are not normally perceived by others. The help of some pictures may be taken for this

purpose. In these activities the subject may also be asked questions that would enable him to fill in

the gaps in his knowledge.

Guess causes and guess consequences type Both these guessing type activities are aimed at

revealing the subject’s ability to formulate hypotheses concerning cause and effect. While being

presented with a picture, the subject may be asked to guess what lies behind the situation in the

picture and what its consequences may be.

Product-improvement typeIn these activities, the subject is asked to suggest ways and means of

improving a toy, a machine or some other such product to make it as interesting and useful as

possible.

Unusual uses type These devices are meant to test the subject’s divergent thinking about the

number of ways in which a product may be used. Here the subject has to enumerate as many unusual

uses as he can think of, for instance, in how many unusual ways can a knife of brick be used?

Unusual questions type In these activities, the subject is required to ask as many unusual questions

as he can about a picture, scene or verbal description.

Just suppose type In these activities, the subject is required to predict the outcomes of unusual

situations, e.g., what would have happened had you been provided with another set of eyes at the

back of your head?

All the activities mentioned above, both on figural and verbal forms, are evaluated in terms of the

creative abilities such as originality, fluency, flexibility and elaboration, etc. An overall high score

on the various sub-tests of the Torrance creative test gives the tester an idea of the overall creative

potential of his subject. However, for a more reliable and valid appraisal of creative potential, one

has to take recourse to other non-testing devices and personality assessment measures.

BAQER MEHDI’S VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL TESTS OF CREATIVITY

This test, developed by Dr. Baqer Mehdi has been published by the National Psychological

Corporation, Agra. It consists of four verbal and three non-verbal sub-tests. The verbal and non-

verbal forms are also available separately.

Verbal Sub-test

Consequence test (Time allowed 12 minutes) Think for the following situations as many

consequences as possible:

What would happen if man could fly like the birds?

What would happen if our schools had wheels?

What would happen if man did not have any need for food?

Unusual uses test (Time allowed 15 minutes). Write as many novel, interesting and unusual uses

for the objects as you can think of, viz., a piece of stone, a wooden stick, water.

New relationship test (Time allowed 15 minutes). Think of as many relationships between the

following pairs of words, as possible:Tree, house.Chair, ladder.

Product improvement test (Time allowed 6 minutes)Suppose you start with a toy horse. Think of

as many new things or features to make it more useful and interesting.

The non-verbal sub-test

You have to construct and elaborate pictures using each figure as an integral part. For each picture,

you have to give a separate title.

Picture construction test (Time allowed 20 minutes)Simple geometrical figures are given to the

subject and they are asked to construct and elaborate pictures using figure as an integral part.

Line figures completion test (Time allowed 15 minutes). Ten incomplete line drawings are

required to draw meaningful and interesting pictures using each of them and also give appropriate

titles.

Picture construction test (Time allowed 10 minutes)Seven triangles and seven ellipses are shown.

You are required to construct different meaningful and interesting pictures by using these figures in

multiple associations.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE

Individual differences stand for “the variations or deviations among individuals in regard to a single characteristic or a number of characteristics”. Individual differences stand for “those differences which in their totality, distinguish one individual from another”. The differences among individuals that distinguish or separate them from one another and make one as a unique individual, may be termed as individual differences

Types of Individual Differences

1.      Physical differences. Individuals differ in height, weight, color of skin, color of eyes and hair, size of hands and heads, arms, feet, mouth and nose, length of waistline, structure and functioning of internal organs, facial expression, mannerisms of speech and walk, hair style and other such native or acquired physical characteristics.

2.      Mental differences. People differ in intellectual abilities and capacities like reasoning and thinking, power of imagination, creative expression, concentration etc. On the basis of these differences they are usually classified as idiot, imbecile, moron, border line, normal, bright, very superior and genius.

3.      Differences in motor ability. There exist a wide difference in motor abilities such as reacting time, speed of action, steadiness, rate of muscular moment, manual dexterity and resistance to fatigue etc.

4.      Differences in achievement. Differences exist in achievement and in knowledge even among individuals who have almost the same amount of intelligence and have been subjected to equal amount of schooling and experience.

5.      Emotional differences. In some individuals, positive emotions like love, affection and amusement and the like are prominent whereas, in some, negative emotions are more powerful. Individuals also differ in the manner they express their emotions. Some are emotionally stable and mature, while others are emotionally unstable and immature. In this way there exist wide emotional differences among individuals.

6.      Differences in interests and aptitudes. Variations occur among the individuals in relation to the specific tastes and interests. Some take interest in meeting people, attending social functions and are very fond of picnics and group excursions; others feel happy in solitude, avoid social gatherings and are interested in meditation or enjoy company of books. In a similar way, people are found to have different aptitudes. Some have mechanical aptitude, while the others have scholastic, musical or artistic aptitudes.

7.      Difference in attitudes, beliefs and opinions. Individuals are found to possess varying attitudes towards different people, groups, objects and ideas. Their attitudes may be positive, negative or of somewhat indifferent nature. Similarly they differ in respect of beliefs, opinions, and ideas. Some believe in one thing, others in another. Some are conservative and rigid while the others are progressive, liberal and dynamic.

8.      Learning differences. Individual differences are found in the field of learning also. Some learn more easily and are able to make use of their learning more comfortably than others. For some, one method of learning or memorization is more suitable, while for others, a different method suits. In the same way suitability of learning environment also depends upon the individual nature of the learner. Thus there are wide individual differences in relation to learning.

9.      Differences in social and moral development. Individuals differ in respect of their social and moral development. Some are found to be adjusted properly in the social situations and lead a happy social life while others are socially handicapped, unsocial or antisocial. Similarly, people are found to differ in respect of ethical and moral sense.

CAUSES FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Heredity

            Some trait differences originate in heredity. Heredity transmits genetic characteristics from the parents to off springs. Gender difference is due to combination of xx (in female) and xy (in male). Likewise the other possible combinations of the genes of chromosomes of male and female cells give rise to differences in colour, height, intelligence and so on.

Environment

            It includes physical, psychological and sociological factors influencing before the birth of the child, while in the womb and after birth in the form of internal secretions and outward influences on the behavioural development of the individuals. The culture, climate, language, customs, social groups and many such factors cause individual differences.

Parental Treatment

            Love and care or negligence and rejection; restrictions or permissions, prohibition or encouragement the child receives influences their traits formation.

Societal Factors

            Rules, prejudices, laws for different races or of different communities may generate feelings of insecurity or security, hope or hopelessness, frustrations or sense of achievement which influence growing and developing children differently.

Maturation Rates

            Some children mature quickly, whereas some mature slowly. In reading one may have high visual acuity, but may not have high attention span or may not be good at symbolic processes that occur on a cortical level. If all these maturities are involved in learning to read, that child’s speed and comprehension are better than the child who has only very good visual acuity.

THINKING

            According to Warren, “Thinking is an ideational activity, symbolic in character, initiated by a problem or task the individual is facing, involving some trial and error but under directing influence of the problem set and ultimately leading to a conclusion or solution of the problem”.

Types of Thinking

a.      Concrete thinking

It is the simplest form of thinking. This type of thinking is also named as concrete thinking as it is carried over the perception of actual or concrete objects and events. Small children are much benefited through this type of thinking.

b.      Abstract thinking

It is an abstract thinking where one makes use of concepts; the generalized ideas. This type of thinking is regarded as superior type of thinking to perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and helps much in discovery and invention.

c.       Reflective thinking

It is a somewhat higher form of thinking. It requires re-organization of all the relevant experiences and finding new ways of reacting to a situation or of removing an obstacle instead of simple association of experiences of ideas.

d.      Creative thinking

This type of thinking is chiefly aimed at creating something new. It is in search of new relationships and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things, events and situations.